{"id":27,"date":"2017-12-27T12:45:19","date_gmt":"2017-12-27T12:45:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencesg.com\/scientificity\/?p=27"},"modified":"2018-01-29T18:06:02","modified_gmt":"2018-01-29T18:06:02","slug":"psychology-meets-chemistry-oxytocin","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencesg.com\/scientificity\/psychology-meets-chemistry-oxytocin\/","title":{"rendered":"Where Psychology meets Chemistry ~ The story of Oxytocin"},"content":{"rendered":"

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Do you want chemical messengers?<\/h2>\n

I have many in the form of Neurotransmitters…<\/strong><\/p>\n

Psychology is the study of the human mind and how it functions, principally in the perspective of behaviour. Chemistry relates to psychology because chemicals affect our moods and behaviour. These processes include the release and re-uptake of neurotransmitters<\/a>. Neurotransmitters, also known as chemical messengers, are endogenous chemicals that enable neurotransmission. They transmit signals across a chemical synapse, such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another “target” neuron, muscle cell, or gland cell. Our brains contain over 100 chemicals that tell the brain and body how to act. If these chemicals are out of balance, they can cause various psychological problems such as depression and bipolar disorder. Chemicals that we ingest can cause such imbalances. Other substances when taken as medicines can restore the chemical balances. Norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine are three important chemicals that affect our moods and behaviour. There are over 100 naturally occurring neurotransmitters like Asparagine, Glutamate, Gamma-aminobutyric acid, Acetylcholine, Histamine, Tyramine, Octopamine, Synephrine, Virodhamine, Dynorphin, Glucagon, Kisspeptin, Secretin, Vasopressin, Tryptamine, Anandamide, Motilin, Orexin B, Enkephalin, Galanin etc.<\/p>\n

\"Common
Representative structures of Common Neurotransmitters<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

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Are you running out of love, trust and attachment?<\/h3>\n

You need support of Oxytocin…<\/strong><\/p>\n

Here in this story, let me discuss about the cause of some most important feelings in mankind: love, trust and attachment. Nothing can be better responsible for these except Oxytocin<\/strong> (C\u2084\u2083H\u2086\u2086N\u2081\u2082O\u2081\u2082S\u2082). It was discovered by Henry Dale in 1906. Its molecular structure was discovered in 1952. The word oxytocin was coined from the term oxytocic. Greek oxys, and, tokos, meaning “quick birth”.
\nOxytocin is a hormone that also acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain. Some people have incorrectly labeled it the \u201clove hormone,\u201d because it is associated with good feelings and emotions. But its role in the body is much more multifaceted than that.
\nThe hormone is in fact produced in the pituitary gland and it is fundamentally a peptide hormone and neuropeptide. Oxytocin is in general produced by the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary. It plays a role in social bonding, sexual reproduction in both sexes. Oxytocin is released into the bloodstream as a hormone in response to stretching of the cervix and uterus during labor and with stimulation of the nipples from breastfeeding. This helps with birth, bonding with the baby and milk production. It is also used as an important medication to facilitate childbirth.<\/p>\n

\"Oxytocin
Structure of Oxytocin<\/figcaption><\/figure>
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Want to know the Psychological perspective of Oxytocin?<\/h2>\n

Here it is…<\/strong><\/p>\n

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  1. From psychological viewpoint, Oxytocin has been implicated in the etiology of autism, with one report suggesting autism is linked with genomic deletion of the gene containing the oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR). Studies involving Caucasian and Finnish samples and Chinese Han families also provide support for the relationship of OXTR with autism.<\/li>\n
  2. Oxytocin has an important role in social behaviours in many species, so it likely also does in humans. In a 2003 study, both humans and dog oxytocin levels in the blood rose after five to 24 minutes of a petting session. This probably plays a role in the emotional bonding between humans and dogs.<\/li>\n
  3. Often maternal behaviour gets commenced due to oxytosin. Female rats given oxytocin antagonists after giving birth do not exhibit typical maternal behavior. On the other hand, virgin female sheep show maternal behaviour toward foreign lambs upon cerebrospinal fluid infusion of oxytocin, which they would not do otherwise. It is primarily involved in the initiation of maternal behavior, not its maintenance; for example, it is higher in mothers after they interact with unfamiliar children rather than their own children.<\/li>\n
  4. This hormone can enhance positive attitudes, such as bonding, toward individuals with similar characteristics, who then become classified as “in-group” members, whereas individuals who are dissimilar become classified as “out-group” members. Race can be used as an example of in-group and out-group tendencies because society often classifies individuals into groups based on race (Caucasian, African American, Latino, etc.). One famous study that examined race and empathy found that participants receiving nasally administered oxytocin had stronger reactions to pictures of in-group members making pained faces than to pictures of out-group members with the same expression.<\/li>\n
  5. Oxytocin is typically considered for the consequence it has on prosocial behaviours, such as its role in facilitating faith and attachment between individuals. Consequently, the hormone is often referred to as the \u201clove hormone”. Nevertheless, it has a more multifaceted role than exclusively enhancing prosocial behaviours. There is consensus that oxytocin alters fear and anxiety; that is, it does not directly elicit fear or anxiety. Nasally administered oxytocin has been reported to decrease fear, possibly by inhibiting the amygdala (which is thought to be accountable for fear responses).<\/li>\n
  6. Some researchers have argued oxytocin has a general enhancing outcome on all social emotions, since intranasal administration of oxytocin also amplifies envy and Schadenfreude. Individuals who receive an intranasal dose of oxytocin recognize facial expressions of disgust faster than persons who do not receive the hormone.<\/li>\n
  7. It produces antidepressant-like effects in animal models of depression, and a scarcity of it may be involved in the pathophysiology of depression in humans. The antidepressant-like effects of oxytocin are not blocked by a selective antagonist of the oxytocin receptor, suggesting that these effects are not mediated by the receptor.<\/li>\n
  8. It has been shown that the hormone differentially affects males and females. Females who are administered oxytocin are overall faster in responding to socially relevant stimuli than males who received it. Additionally, after the administration of the hormone, females show increased amygdala activity in response to threatening scenes; however, males do not show increased amygdala activation.<\/li>\n
  9. It has also been shown that testosterone directly suppresses oxytocin in mice. This has been hypothesized to have evolutionary significance. With oxytocin suppressed, activities such as hunting and attacking invaders would be less mentally difficult as the hormone is strongly associated with empathy.<\/li>\n
  10. Serious methodological questions have arisen, however, with regard to the role of oxytocin in trust, faith and generosity. Empathy in healthy males has been shown to be increased after intranasal oxytocin. Trust is increased by the hormone. Disclosure of emotional events is a sign of trust in humans. When recounting a negative event, humans who receive intranasal oxytocin share more emotional details and stories with more emotional significance.<\/li>\n
  11. Some studies vividly indicate that high levels of plasma oxytocin have been associated with romantic attachment. For instance, if a couple is separated for a long period of time, anxiety can increase due to the lack of physical affection. The hormone may assist romantically attached couples by lessening their emotions of anxiety when they are separated.<\/li>\n
  12. Sex is one of our biggest obsessions \u2014 causing thrills, anguish and downright confusion. But until recently, exactly what happens in the brain for the duration of sex was something of a mystery to scientists. A dose of the oxytocin may make people’s orgasms more intense, a new study from German based research group suggests. However, the hormone had no consequence on sex drive or arousal for either men or women, nor did it affect the ability to accomplish an erection for men, or vaginal lubrication for women.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n

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    Now oxytocin is in a chemist\u2019s court…<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n

    Oxytocin is generated in magnocellular neurosecretory cells in the supraoptic nucleus and paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus and it is discharged into the blood from the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. Some neurons in the paraventricular nucleus that project to other parts of the brain and to the spinal cord are also responsible for the generation of the hormone. Oxytocin, a nonapeptide contains the sequence cysteine – tyrosine – isoleucine – glutamine – asparagine – cysteine – proline – leucine – glycine (CYIQNCPLG). Sulfur bridge is formed by the the cysteine residues. Molecular mass of the hormone is approximately 1007 daltons. Now from the structural point of view oxytocin resembles vasopressin (cysteine – tyrosine – phenylalanine – glutamine – asparagine – cysteine – proline – arginine – glycine), also a nonapeptide with a sulfur bridge, whose sequence differs from oxytocin by 2 amino acids. Oxytocin and vasopressin were isolated and synthesized by Vincent du Vigneaud in the year 1953. This was the work for which he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1955 with the citation: “for his work on biochemically important sulphur compounds, especially for the first synthesis of a polypeptide hormone.”. Oxytocin and vasopressin are the only two well known hormones released by the human posterior pituitary gland to act at a distance. On the other hand, oxytocin neurons make other peptides, including corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) and dynorphin. But they act locally. It is worthy to mention that magnocellular neurons that make oxytocin are adjacent to magnocellular neurons that make vasopressin, and are similar in many respects.<\/p>\n

    \"CPK
    CPK model of the Oxitocin<\/figcaption><\/figure>
    \n<\/p>\n

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    Are you thinking of taking oxytocin as a drug after going through the article so far?<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n

    Synthetic oxytocin is often sold as an important medication under the trade names Pitocin and Syntocinon and also as generic oxytocin. In the gastrointestinal tract oxytocin is destroyed, and therefore it must be administered by injection or as nasal spray. The hormone has a very short half-life of typically about three minutes in the blood. Oxytocin given intravenously does not enter the brain in considerable quantities – it is excluded from the brain by the blood-brain barrier. There is no evidence for momentous CNS entry of the hormone by nasal spray. Often to stimulate breastfeeding, oxytocin nasal sprays have been used but the efficacy of this approach is uncertain.
    \nIn order to induce labour and to support labour in case of non-progression of parturition injected oxytocin analogues are often used. It has largely replaced ergotamine as the most important agent to increase uterine tone in acute postpartum haemorrhage. Oxytocin is famous in veterinary medicine to facilitate birth and to increase milk production. The tocolytic agent atosiban (Tractocile\u00c2\u00ae) performs as an antagonist of oxytocin receptors; this drug is registered in many countries to suppress premature labour between 24 and 33 weeks of gestation. Side-effects are lesser for this drug than drugs previously used for this purpose (salbutamol , ritodrine and terbutaline).<\/p>\n

    \"Medication\"<\/p>\n

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    Concerned about side effects of oxytocin when taken externally?<\/h4>\n<\/p>\n

    When used at recommended doses, Oxytocin is relatively safe. Potential side effects may comprise: Central nervous system: seizures , Subarachnoid hemorrhage; Cardiovascular: blood pressure, Increased heart rate, systemic venous return, cardiac output and arrhythmias; Genitourinary: pelvic hematoma, Impaired uterine blood flow, tetanic uterine contractions, uterine rupture, postpartum hemorrhage.<\/p>\n

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    References<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n