{"id":149,"date":"2018-01-10T19:10:19","date_gmt":"2018-01-10T19:10:19","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.sciencesg.com\/scientificity\/?p=149"},"modified":"2018-03-27T14:23:56","modified_gmt":"2018-03-27T14:23:56","slug":"antioxidants-chemically-yours","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/www.sciencesg.com\/scientificity\/antioxidants-chemically-yours\/","title":{"rendered":"Antioxidants ~ Chemically Yours"},"content":{"rendered":"

One of the biggest gifts of Mother Nature<\/h2>\n

Dear readers, nowadays, most people are afflicted with a number of diseases. Our life is tremendously threatened by heart diseases, diabetes, cancer of different types, Alzheimer\u2019s disease, Parkinson\u2019s disease, renal disease, diseases due to cellular mutations and many others. In this article, I will share one of the biggest gifts of Mother Nature to us to minimize our health problems.<\/p>\n

Can you guess what it is?<\/h4>\n

Yes, you have guessed it right. This is antioxidant. An antioxidant is a molecule that slows down the oxidation of other molecules. Usually, in the broader sense, oxidation is a type of chemical reaction that can generate free radicals<\/a>, leading to chain reactions that may damage and affect cells. Antioxidants are substances that may prevent or delay some types of cell damage. Mother Nature, the most influential scientist of the Universe, has infused Antioxidants in many foods, including fruits and vegetables.<\/p>\n

\"Few
Few common antioxidants<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Types and benefits of antioxidants<\/h2>\n

Surely you are interested to know about antioxidants. Isn\u2019t it?<\/strong><\/p>\n

The benefits of antioxidants are incredibly significant to good health. This is due to the fact that, if free radicals are left unchallenged, they can cause a broad array of illnesses and chronic diseases. Our human body naturally produces lots of free radicals and the role of antioxidants is to counteract their damaging effects. However, in most cases, free radicals far outnumber the naturally occurring antioxidants. In order to maintain the subtle balance, a continual supply of external sources of antioxidants is necessary in order to obtain the maximum benefits of antioxidants. The way antioxidants benefit the body is usually by neutralizing and removing the free radicals from the bloodstream.<\/p>\n

At those times, when the skin is exposed to relatively high levels of ultraviolet light, photo-oxidative damage is induced due to the generation of diverse types of reactive species of oxygen. This includes singlet oxygen, superoxide radicals, and peroxide radicals. These forms of reactive oxygen are chiefly responsible for the damage of cellular lipids, proteins and DNA. These are considered to be the primary contributors to erythema (sunburn), premature aging of the skin, photodermatoses, and skin cancers. Singlet oxygen can compromise the immune system, because it has the capability to catalyze production of free radicals.<\/p>\n

In order to protect the skin from reactive species of oxygen, Astaxanthin, followed by beta-carotene combined with vitamin E has been shown to be one of the most powerful antioxidants. Astaxanthin and Spirulina have been proven to improve both the non-specific and specific immune system. Both of these have a significant contribution to protect cell membranes and cellular DNA from mutation. It is worthy to mention in this context that, Astaxanthin is the single most powerful quencher of singlet oxygen and is up to ten times stronger than other carotenoids (including beta-carotene) and up to 500 times stronger than alpha tocopherol (Vitamin E), whereas Spirulina contains a variety of antioxidants and other substances that are beneficial in enhancing immunity.<\/p>\n

Antioxidants such as thiols or ascorbic acid (vitamin C) are also of immense significance as they can terminate the chain reactions once initiated by the free radicals. In the context of today’s polluted world, increasing one’s antioxidant intake is indispensable for good health. This is primarily because the body just can’t keep up with antioxidant production, a good amount of these vitamins, minerals, phytochemicals, and enzymes must come from one’s daily diet. If we are able to increase our antioxidant intake, it can help us by providing added protection for the body against: mood disorders, eye problems, heart problems, memory problems, immune system problems.<\/p>\n

Two different groups of substances are mainly used for the term “antioxidant”. Often industrial chemicals are added to products to prevent oxidation. Many times, natural chemicals are found in foods and body tissue which are said to have beneficial health effects. To maintain the balance of the oxidative state, plants and animals preserve complex systems of overlapping antioxidants, such as glutathione and enzymes (e.g., catalase and superoxide dismutase) produced internally or by the dietary antioxidants: vitamin A, vitamin C, and vitamin E.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Want to have some information regarding the antioxidants usually observed in food items?<\/h2>\n

No food compounds have been proved with antioxidant efficacy in vivo<\/em> other than for dietary antioxidant vitamins \u2013 vitamin A, vitamin C and vitamin E. It would be beneficial for us to know that regulatory agencies like the Food and Drug Administration of the United States and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) have published guidance prohibiting food product labels to claim an inferred antioxidant benefit when no such physiological confirmation is present. Plenty of food items have a high polyphenol content. But, polyphenols have antioxidant properties only in test tube studies. Many studies have revealed that dietary polyphenols have very little or no direct antioxidant food value following digestion. The fate of polyphenols in vivo<\/em> shows they are feebly absorbed (less than ~4.5%). Catechol group present in many polyphenols, acts as an electron acceptor and is therefore responsible for the antioxidant activity. However, upon uptake in the human body, this catechol group undergoes extensive metabolism for example by catechol-O-methyl transferase, and is consequently no longer capable to perform as an electron acceptor.<\/p>\n

Polyphenols are usually obtained from a) Isoflavones (soy beans, tofu, lentils, peas and milk), b) Flavonols (citrus fruits, red wine, onions and apples), c) Catechins (tea, green tea, cocoa, dark chocolate), d) Anthocyanins (berries, red wine) and e) Chlorogenic acid (instant and brewed coffee). Representative spices high in polyphenols (confirmed from in vitro<\/em> studies) are cinnamon, clove, turmeric, cumin, parsley, oregano, basil, curry powder, mustard seed, ginger, pepper, chili powder, paprika, garlic, coriander, onion and cardamom. Whereas, classic examples of herbs high in polyphenols are sage, marjoram, thyme, tarragon, savory, oregano, peppermint, basil and dill weed. Polyphenol content is significantly high in pigmented fruits like cranberries, plums, blueberries, raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, figs, blackcurrants, cherries, grape juice, guava, oranges, mango and pomegranate juice. High antioxidant content is also observed in avocados, asparagus, broccoli, artichokes, cabbage, beetroot, spinach and in typical nuts (walnuts, pecans, almonds, pistachio, hazelnuts, cashew nuts and macadamia nuts).<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Let us throw light on the mechanistic action of antioxidants<\/h2>\n

In order to prevent oxidative damages, the antioxidant compounds react in one-electron reactions with free radicals in vivo<\/em>\/in vitro<\/em>. In this section, we will discuss the mechanistic action of the natural antioxidant compounds and assays for the evaluation of their antioxidant activities as it is very important to understand the reaction mechanism of antioxidants with the free radicals. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) are generated in usual biochemical reactions with increased exposure to the environment. These are responsible for the oxidative stress in different pathophysiological conditions which in turn are liable for alterations of cellular constituents of our body and result in various disease states. There are certain compounds acting as antioxidants to enhance cellular defense mechanism to reduce the oxidative stress.<\/p>\n

Depending on their activities, we can categorize antioxidants as enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. The process of enzymatic antioxidants involve breaking down and removing free radicals and these are also involved for the conversions of oxidative products into hydrogen peroxide which is then converted to water in presence of cofactors such as copper, zinc, manganese, and iron via a multi-step process. On the other hand, non-enzymatic antioxidants (classic examples involve vitamin C, vitamin E, plant polyphenol, carotenoids, and glutathione) involve in the process by interrupting free radical chain reactions.<\/p>\n

ROS are generated on activation of NADPH oxidase with fast uptake of oxygen and initially superoxide anion radical (O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup>) is generated. This is then converted to Hydrogen peroxide by SOD (superoxide dismutase).<\/p>\n

On the other hand, RNS such as nitric oxide (NO\u02d9<\/sup>), are generated by the enzyme nitric oxide synthase from arginine. It is very much evident that an inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) is competent of constantly producing huge quantity of NO\u02d9<\/sup>, which act as a O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup> quencher as NO\u02d9<\/sup> and O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup> can react together to produce peroxynitrite (ONOO\u2212<\/sup>), a very strong oxidant. Neither NO\u02d9<\/sup> nor O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup> can be considered to be a strong oxidant but peroxynitrite is a strong and versatile oxidant that can attack a broad array of biological targets. Peroxynitrite thus formed, reacts with the aromatic amino acid residues present in the enzyme resulting in the nitration of the aromatic amino acids and results in the enzyme inactivation.<\/p>\n

Several research reports clearly reveal that oxygen metabolism generates \u02d9<\/sup>OH, O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup>, and the non-radical H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> and among these \u02d9<\/sup>OH is extremely reactive and it reacts with biological molecules such as DNAs, proteins, and lipids, which results in the huge to moderate chemical alterations of these molecules.<\/p>\n

\"Reaction
Reaction of guanine with hydroxyl radical<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Activated oxygen species and metal ions such as Fe2+<\/sup> and Cu2+<\/sup> come together to damage the proteins oxidatively. Lysine, proline, arginine and histidine are extremely sensitive towards such oxidative damage. Recent studies have revealed that a wide array of residue modifications can take place obviously including the formation of peroxides and carbonyls and usually oxidative damage to tissue indicates in the increased amount of oxidized protein. Body protects itself from ROS by using enzymatic antioxidant mechanisms by reducing the levels of lipid hydroperoxide and H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> and they are important in the prevention of lipid peroxidation and maintaining the structure and function of cell membranes. Classic examples involve superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSHPx) and peroxiredoxin I\u2013IV (I\u2013IV).<\/p>\n

SOD’s are situated in the cytosol and mitochondria and they catalytically convert the O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup> into oxygen and H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> in company of the metal ion cofactors such as copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) or manganese (Mn). Now, the enzyme CAT is frequently present in the peroxisome, converts H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> to water and oxygen. On the other hand, GSHPx are usually found both in the cytoplasm and extracellularly in almost every human tissue and they are capable convert H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub> into water. There is no scarcity of research articles and reviews that reveal the enzymatic antioxidants and their mechanisms.<\/p>\n

Nonenzymatic antioxidants involve vitamin C, vitamin E, plant polyphenol, carotenoids and glutathione.<\/p>\n

\"Reaction
Reaction of with the sugar moiety of DNA with hydroxyl radical<\/figcaption><\/figure>
\n<\/p>\n

My mom still calls me and makes sure I’m taking my vitamins every day and I believe that Vitamins can fix everything…<\/h2>\n

Vitamin E (\u03b1-tocopherol) functions as a \u2018chain breaker\u2019 during lipid peroxidation in cell membranes. This is an efficient lipid soluble antioxidant that exhibits antioxidant effects by scavenging lipid peroxyl radicals in vivo<\/em> as well as in vitro<\/em> systems. However, vitamin E is not an efficient scavenger of \u02d9<\/sup>OH and alkoxyl radicals (\u02d9<\/sup>OR) in vivo<\/em>.<\/p>\n

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid), a water-soluble free radical scavenger, gets converted to the ascorbate radical by donating an electron to the lipid radical in order to cease the lipid peroxidation chain reaction.<\/p>\n

\"Ascorbic
Ascorbic acid\u2019s radical scavenging mechanism<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

It is quite evident from the above mechanism that the pairs of ascorbate radicals react rapidly to produce one molecule of ascorbate along with another molecule of dehydroascorbate. Since dehydroascorbate does not show any antioxidant capacity so dehydroascorbate gets converted back into the ascorbate by the addition of two electrons.<\/p>\n

Monaghan and Schmitt were the persons who first described antioxidant potential of vitamin A and its protecting behaviour of lipids against rancidity. Study has been performed on vitamin A in relation to protect human LDL against copper-stimulated oxidation.<\/p>\n

\"Vitamin
Vitamin A\u2019s radical scavenging mechanism<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Oxidation of the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) generates a fatty acid radical (L\u02d9<\/sup>) (where, LH is the target PUFA) which rapidly adds oxygen to form a fatty acid peroxyl radical (LOO\u02d9<\/sup>). The peroxyl radicals are the carriers of the chain reactions and they can further oxidize PUFA molecules to initiate new chain reactions, producing lipid hydroperoxides (LOOH). In the above mechanism, Vitamin A\u2019s radical scavenging mechanism has been briefly explained.<\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

Bioflavonoid itself is the best Physician…<\/h2>\n

Bioflavonoids are fundamentally a class of natural benzo-\u03b3-pyran derivatives and they possess important antioxidant activities. Flavone (e.g. apigenin, luteoline), flavonol (e.g. quercetin, myricetin), flavonolols (e.g. taxifolin), flavan-3-ols (e.g. catechin, epigallocatechin), flavonone (e.g. hesperetin, naringenin), anthocyanidin (e.g. cynidin, delphidin), isoflavone (e.g. genistein, daidzein).<\/p>\n

\"Few
Few examples of Bioflavonoids<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Bioflavonoids usually observed in fruits and vegetables, show several biological effects including free radical-scavenging activity. For example, Quercetin is a flavonol, acknowledged extremely for its ability to protect DNA from oxidative damage resulting from the attack of \u02d9<\/sup>OH, H2<\/sub>O2<\/sub>, and O2<\/sub>\u02d9\u2212<\/sup> on the DNA oligonucleotides.<\/p>\n

\"Mechanism
Mechanism of quercetin\u2019s superoxide anion radical scavenging<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

On the other hand, anthocynidins (cynidin) can donate a single electron to a free radical from \u2013OH groups attached to the phenolic rings and this electron stabilizes and inactivates the free radical. Consequence of the overall result is the termination of damaging oxidative chain reactions.<\/p>\n

\"Mechanism
Mechanism of of cynidin\u2019s radical scavenging<\/figcaption><\/figure>
\n<\/p>\n

Let carotenoids be the medicine…<\/h2>\n

Carotenoids are the most common lipid soluble (long unsaturated alkyl chains in carotenoids are responsible for lipophilicity) phytonutrients. Among more than 500 different compounds, Lycopene and \u03b2-carotene are the most prominent carotenoids. Processes like lipid peroxidation generate peroxyl radicals and these peroxyl radicals damage the lipids in the cell wall. Among many other ROS, carotenoids are capable of scavenging the peroxyl radicals (reacting with them by forming resonance stabilized carbon-centered radicals) more efficiently. Significant number of conjugated double bonds are mainly responsible for the quenching of singlet oxygen and demonstration of antioxidant activity of Lycopene. Reports reveal that singlet oxygen quenching ability of Lycopene is stronger than \u03b2-carotene. \u03b2-Carotene, naturally occurring orange-coloured carotenoid, abundantly found in the yellow-orange fruits and in dark-green leafy vegetables shows probable antioxidant properties due to its chemical structure and the interaction with biological membranes.<\/p>\n

\"Representative
Representative structures of Lycopene and Beta-Carotene<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n

Curcumin, a wonder drug in waiting…<\/h2>\n

Curcumin is a bis-\u03b1, \u03b2-unsaturated \u03b2-diketone and it shows keto\u2013enol tautomerism. Curcumin is lipid soluble and exhibits remarkable antioxidant activity. Phenolic -OH group present in curcumin is chiefly accountable for the radical scavenging activity of this skeleton along with methylene unit present in such \u03b2-diketone framework.<\/p>\n

\"Radical
Radical scavenging activity of curcumin involving methylenic unit present in such \u03b2-diketone framework<\/figcaption><\/figure>
\n
\"Radical
Radical scavenging activity of curcumin involving phenolic unit present<\/figcaption><\/figure>
\n<\/p>\n

Have you enjoyed reading this or are you feeling bored reading?<\/h4>\n

Whatever might be the situation, you have to acknowledge that antioxidants are a vital gift of nature to prevent some of the damages caused by free radicals. While writing this article, I was reminded of two famous quotes.
\nOne of them is Albert Einstein\u2019s…<\/p>\n

Look deep into nature, and then you will understand everything better.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

and the other one is Voltaire\u2019s…<\/p>\n

The art of medicine consists in amusing the patient while nature cures the disease.<\/p><\/blockquote>\n

So, to rephrase a famous saying, we can conclude that a family of antioxidants is one of nature’s masterpieces.<\/p>\n

Selected References:<\/strong><\/p>\n

    \n
  1. Wikipedia<\/a> article on antioxidants.<\/li>\n
  2. List<\/a> of antioxidants in Food<\/li>\n
  3. Pal, D.K., Nimse, S.B., RSC Adv.<\/em>, 2015, 5, 27986-28006.<\/li>\n
  4. Rao, A.V., Rao, L.G., Pharmacol. Res.<\/em>, 2007, 55, 207\u2013216.<\/li>\n
  5. Y. F. Bai, Y.F., Xu, H., Acta Pharmacol. Sin.<\/em>, 2000, 21, 357\u2013359.<\/li>\n
  6. S\u00e1nchez-Moreno, C., Food Sci. Technol. Int.<\/em>, 2002, 8, 121\u2013137.<\/li>\n
  7. Antolovich, M., Prenzler, P.D., Patsalides, E., McDonald, S., Robards, K., Analyst<\/em>, 2002, 127, 183\u2013198.<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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